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13. MILLING OF WHEAT FLOUR.
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| Tuesday, April 28, 2009 |
Great advances have been made in the production of flour from wheat, and these are very good evidence of man's progress in the way of invention. The earliest method consisted in crushing the grain by hand between two stones, and from this crude device came the mortar and pestle. A little later millstones in the form of thick, heavy disks were brought into use for grinding grain.
Two of these stones were placed so that their surfaces came together, the lower one
being stationary and the upper one made to revolve. Early grinding apparatus of this kind was turned by human power, but this kind of power was first displaced by domestic animals and later by wind and water. Out of this arrangement, which is still used to some extent in small mills, has grown the present-day complicated machinery of the roller process, by which any part of the grain may be included or rejected.
14. In the roller process, the grain is crushed between metal rolls instead of being ground between stones. It is first screened in order to separate all foreign matter from it, and then stored in bins. When it is taken from these receptacles, it is put through another cleaning process, called scouring, or it is thoroughly washed and dried in order to loosen the dirt that clings to it and to free it entirely from dust, lint, etc.
As soon as it is completely cleansed, it is softened by heat and moisture and then passed
through a set of corrugated rollers, which are adjustable as are the rubber rollers of a clothes wringer and which flatten and break the grains.
After this first crushing, some of the bran is sifted out, while the main portion of the grain is put through another set of rollers and crushed more finely. During the milling, these processes of crushing the grain and removing the bran are repeated from six to nine times, each pair of rollers being set somewhat closer than the pair before, until the grain is pulverized.
After the grain has been thus reduced to a powder, it is passed through bolting cloth, which acts as a very fine sieve and separates from it any foreign material that may remain. The result is a very fine, white flour.
15. GRAHAM FLOUR.
--Sometimes the entire grain, including the bran, germ, etc., is ground fine enough merely for baking purposes and is used as flour in this form. Such flour is called graham flour. It
contains all the nutriment, mineral matter, and cellulose of the original grain, and is therefore considered valuable as food. However, the objection to this kind of flour is that its keeping quality is not so good as that of the kinds from which the germ has been removed, because the fat contained in the germ is liable to become rancid. |
posted by neptunus @ 6:39 PM
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10. SPRING, OR HARD WHEAT is so named because it is sown in the spring of the year and is
very tough or firm. Before this variety was known, the wheat used for bread making was not ideal, and the efforts that were made to produce a grain that would be suitable for this purpose resulted in this variety. To obtain its particular composition, spring wheat must be grown under suitable climatic and soil conditions.
In North America, it grows in the north central part of the United States and along the
southern border of Canada. This variety, which is harvested in the late summer, is characterized by a large proportion of gluten and a correspondingly small amount of starch. It is the presence of the gluten that accounts for the hardness of the spring-wheat grain and the tough, elastic quality of the dough made from the spring-wheat flour.
Bread dough, to be right, must have this quality, so that the flour made from spring wheat is used almost exclusively for bread; whereas, for cake and pastry, which should have a tender, unelastic texture, flour made from soft wheat is more satisfactory.
11. WINTER, OR SOFT WHEAT derives its name from the fact that it is planted in the autumn and
is soft in texture. It is of less importance in the making of bread than spring, or hard, wheat, but it is the kind that has been grown for centuries and from which the varieties of spring wheat have been cultivated. It is a softer grain than spring wheat, because it contains less gluten and more starch.
The flour made from it does not produce so elastic a dough mixture as does that made from the other variety of wheat; consequently, the finished product, such as bread, rolls, etc., is likely to be more tender and more friable, or crumbly. It is for this reason that winter, or soft, wheat is not used extensively for bread, but is employed for pastry flour or mixed with spring wheat to make what is called a blend flour, which may be used for all purposes.
12. STRUCTURE OF WHEAT GRAIN.
--In its natural state, wheat contains all the food substances required for the nourishment of the human body in nearly the proper proportions, and in addition it has in its composition sufficient cellulose to give it considerable bulk. It has been estimated that the average
composition of this grain is as follows:
PER CENT.
Protein
11.9
Fat
2.1
Carbohydrates
71.9
Mineral salts
1.8
Water
.5
Cellulose
1.8
Total
100.0
So that the composition of wheat and the making of wheat flour may be more clearly understood, it will be well to observe the structure of a grain, or kernel, of wheat, which is shown greatly enlarged in Fig. 1. At a is shown the germ of the young plant, which remains undeveloped
until the grain is planted. This part contains practically all the fat found in the grain, some starch, and a small quantity of protein. At b is shown the inside of the kernel, or the
endosperm, as it is called, which is composed of starch granules interlaced with protein and mineral salts.
Surrounding these, as at c, is a layer of coarse cells that contain mineral matter and protein, and between these cells and the outer husk, as at d, e, f, and g, are layers of bran, which are composed of cellulose and contain mineral salts and small quantities of starch and protein.
Enveloping the entire kernel is a husk, or bran covering, h. This forms a protection to
the rest of the grain, but it cannot be used as food, because it is composed almost entirely of cellulose, which is practically indigestible. The center of the grain, or the heart, is the softest part and consists of cells filled with starch. From this soft center the contents of the grain gradually grow harder toward the outside, the harder part and that containing the most gluten occurring next to the bran covering. |
| posted by neptunus @ 6:39 PM
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FLOUR
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7. GRAINS USED FOR FLOUR.
--As has been pointed out elsewhere, numerous grains are raised by man, but only two of them, namely, wheat and rye, are used alone for the making of yeast, or leavened, bread. The other grains, such as corn, rice, and oats, produce a flat, unleavened cake, so they are seldom used for bread making unless they are mixed with white flour. Wheat and rye have been used for bread making for a very long time, and their universal use today is due to the fact that they
contain considerable protein in the form of gluten.
This is the substance that produces elasticity in the dough mixture, a condition that is absolutely essential in the making of raised bread. In fact, the toughness and elasticity of bread dough are what make it possible for the dough to catch and hold air
and gas and thus produce a light, porous loaf.
8. Of these two grains, rye is used less extensively in the United States for the making of bread than wheat, although in some countries, particularly the inland countries of Continental Europe, considerable use is made of it. Its limited use here is undoubtedly due to the fact that when rye is used alone it makes a moist, sticky bread, which is considered undesirable by most persons.
The reason for this is that, although rye contains a sufficient quantity of gluten, this substance is not of the proper quality to make the elastic dough that produces a light, spongy loaf. Therefore, when rye is used, wheat flour is generally mixed with it. The result is a bread having a good texture, but the dark color and the typical flavor that rye produces.
9. Wheat, the other grain used for bread making, is an annual grass of unknown origin. It is used more extensively for food than any other grain. In fact, it has been estimated that the average quantity consumed by each person is about 6 bushels a year, and of this amount by far the greater part is used in the making of bread.
Since so much of this grain is used as food, considerable time and effort have been spent in developing those qualities which are most desirable for the purpose to which wheat is put and in perfecting the processes whereby wheat flour of a good quality may be obtained.
This grain is particularly well adapted for bread making because of the nature of the proteins it contains and the relative proportions of these. These proteins, which occur in the wheat grain in the form of gluten, are known as gliadin and glutenin.
The gliadin imparts elasticity and tenacity, or toughness, to the gluten, and the glutenin gives it strength. It is not, however, so much the quantity of gluten in the wheat grain that actually determines the quality of flour as the fact that the two varieties must be present in the proper proportions in order for the gluten to have the properties desired for bread making.
Wheat consists of numerous varieties, but only two of these are grown and used in the United States, namely, spring, or hard, wheat and winter, or soft, wheat. |
| posted by neptunus @ 6:38 PM
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4. Among people who are not highly civilized, bread forms the chief article of food and often almost the entire diet, even at the present time; but as man progresses in civilization he seems to require a greater variety of food, and he accordingly devises means of getting it. Since bread is only one of the many foods he finds at his disposal, it does not assume a place of so much importance in present-day meals as it formerly did.
However, it still makes up a sufficient proportion of the food of every family to warrant such careful and extensive study, as well as such mastery of the processes involved, that the
housewife may present to her family only the best quality of this food.
Although it does not have such extensive use as it had in the past, bread of some description, whether in the form of loaves, biscuits, or rolls, forms a part of each meal in every household.
This fact proves that, with the exception of milk, it is more frequently eaten than any other food. A food so constantly used contributes very largely to the family's health if it is properly made. However, there is possibly nothing in the whole range of domestic life that so disturbs the welfare of the entire family as an inferior quality of this food, which, besides proving detrimental to the digestion, adds materially to the household expense.
5. Of course, in many bakeries, bread of an excellent quality is made in a perfectly hygienic manner, and to be able to procure such bread is a wonderful help to the busy housewife or to the woman who finds it inconvenient to make her own bread.
Still, practically every person enjoys "home-made" bread so much more than what is made commercially that the housewife will do well to make a careful study of this branch of cookery. If it is properly understood, it will not be found difficult; but the woman who takes it up must manifest her interest to master a few essential principles and to follow them explicitly.
After she has obtained the knowledge that she must possess, experience and practice will give her the skill necessary to prevent poor results and a consequent waste of material.
INGREDIENTS FOR BREAD MAKING
INGREDIENTS REQUIRED
6. Possibly the first essential to a correct knowledge of bread making is familiarity with the ingredients required. These are few in number, being merely flour, liquid, which may be either milk or water, sugar, salt, and yeast; but the nature of these, particularly the flour and the yeast, is such as to demand careful consideration. It will be admitted that the more the housewife knows about *bread-making materials and processes the greater will be her success in this work.
Likewise, it is extremely important that this food be made just as wholesome as possible, for next to milk and eggs, bread ranks as a perfect food, containing all the elements necessary for the growth of the body. This does not mean, though, that any of these foods used as the sole article of diet would be ideal, but that each one of them is of such composition that it alone would sustain life for a long period of time. |
| posted by neptunus @ 6:38 PM
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BREAD
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BREAD-MAKING REQUIREMENTS
IMPORTANCE OF BREAD AS FOOD
1. BREAD is sometimes defined as any form of baked flour, but as the word is commonly understood
it means only those forms of baked flour which contain some leavening substance that produces fermentation. The making of bread has come down through the ages from the simplest methods practiced by the most primitive peoples to the more elaborate processes of the present day.
In truth, to study the history of bread making would amount to studying the accounts of the progress that has been made by the human race. Still, in order that the production of bread from suitable ingredients may be fully understood, it will be well to note the advancement that has been made.
2. In the earliest times, what was used as bread was made in much the same way as it is today by
many uncivilized and semicivilized people. The grain was ground between stones, usually by hand, and then mixed with water to form a dough; then this dough was formed into flat, compact cakes and baked in hot ashes, the result being a food very difficult to digest.
Later on, some one discovered that by allowing the dough to stand until fermentation took place and then mixing it with new dough, the whole mass would rise, and also that by subjecting this mass to the action of heat, that is, baking it, the mass would be held in place and become a loaf of raised bread that was lighter and, of course, more digestible.
It was this discovery that led up to the modern bread-making processes, in which substances known as leavening agents, or ferments, are used to make bread light, or porous. Chief among the
substances is yeast, a microscopic plant that produces fermentation under favorable conditions.
Indeed, so important is this ferment that, in the United States, whenever the term bread is used alone it means yeast, or leavened, bread, whereas, when other leavening agents are used, the bread is referred to as hot bread, or quick bread, as is fully explained in another Section. It will be well to note this fact, for in all cases throughout these cookery lessons yeast, or leavened, bread is always meant when the term bread is used alone.
3. References in the history of the ancient Hebrews show that bread made light by means of fermentation was known thousands of years ago, but it was not until after the accidental discovery of the action of yeast that the making of wholesome and digestible bread became possible. Through this important advance in the making of bread came a demand for better grains and more improved methods of making flour.
Indeed, so much attention has been given to these matters that at present the three
important processes relating to bread-making--the raising of wheat, the milling of flour, and the manufacture of yeast--are carefully and scientifically performed. These industries, together with the commercial manufacture of bread, occupy an important place in the business of practically all civilized nations. |
| posted by neptunus @ 6:32 PM
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CEREALS
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EXAMINATION QUESTIONS
(1) (a) Mention the eight cereals that are used for food. (b) How may the universal consumption of cereals be accounted for?
(2) (a) Explain why cereals and cereal products are economical foods. (b) What factors should be
considered in the selection of cereals?
(3) (a) Why are cereals not easily contaminated? (b) What care in storage should be given to both
prepared and unprepared cereals?
(4) (a) Explain briefly the composition of cereals. (b) Describe the structure of cereal grains.
(5) What food substance is found in the greatest proportion in cereals?
(6) What characteristics of cereals make them valuable in the diet?
(7) What material, besides the food substances, is always present in cereals, and what are its purposes?
(8) What is the purpose of cooking cereals?
(9) (a) What occurs when starch is cooked in a liquid? (b) Describe the process of setting a cereal.
(10) (a) Mention the various methods of cooking cereals, (b) What are the advantages of the double-boiler method?
(11) (a) What influences the proportion of water required and the length of time necessary to cook cereals? (b) Is it an advantage to cook cereals for a long time? Tell why.
(12) Mention the cereals that you would use in winter and tell why you would use them.
(13) (a) Of what advantage is it to add dates to cream of wheat? (b) Mention some of the ways in
which left-over wheat cereals may be utilized.
(14) (a) Explain the three methods of cooking rice, giving the proportion of water to rice in each one. (b) How should rice grains look when they are properly cooked?
(15) Mention several ways in which to utilize left-over rolled oats.
(16) (a) What advantages have ready-to-eat cereals over unprepared ones? (b) Tell why cereals that have been toasted are said to be predigested.
(17) (a) What is the advantage of serving milk or cream with cereals? (b) How may variety be secured in the serving of cereals?
(18) (a) How are Italian pastes made? (b) Mention and describe the three principal varieties of Italian paste, (c) What tests can be applied to judge the quality of these foods?
(19) (a) Explain the first steps in cooking macaroni, (b) How much does macaroni increase upon
being boiled?
(20) (a) Why may macaroni be substituted for meat in the diet? (b) What foods used in the preparation of macaroni make it a better meat substitute?
REPORT ON MENU
After trying out the breakfast menu given in the text, send with your answers to the Examination
Questions a report of your success. In making out your report, simply write the name of the food and describe its condition by means of the terms specified in the following list?
Cream of Wheat: thin? thick? lumpy? smooth? salty? well flavored?
Rolled Oats: thin? thick? lumpy? smooth? salty? well flavored?
Scrambled Eggs: dry? moist? watery? salty? well flavored?
Buttered Toast: thin? thick? crisp? soggy? browned? not sufficiently toasted? unevenly browned?
Cocoa: smooth? strong? weak? thick? scum formed on top?
Coffee: strong? weak? muddy? clear? |
| posted by neptunus @ 6:30 PM
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BUTTERED TOAST
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Bread for toasting should as a rule be 48 hours or more old. Cut the desired number of slices, making each about 1/4 to 1/2 inch thick. Place the slices on a toaster over a bed of clear coals or on a broiler under a slow gas flame. Turn the bread frequently until it assumes an even light brown on both sides. Remove from the heat, spread each slice with butter, and serve while hot and crisp.
COCOA
2 c. scalded milk
3 Tb. cocoa
3 Tb. sugar
1/4 tsp. salt
2-1/2 c. boiling water
Scald the milk in a double boiler. Mix the cocoa, sugar, and salt. Stir the boiling water into this mixture gradually, and let it boil for several minutes over the fire. Then turn the mixture into the hot milk in the double boiler, and beat all with an egg beater for several minutes. A drop of vanilla added to the cocoa just before serving adds to its flavor.
BOILED COFFEE
Scald a clean coffee pot, and into it put 12 level tablespoonfuls of ground coffee. Add several crushed egg shells or the white of one egg, pour in 1 cupful of cold water, and shake until the whole is well mixed. Add 5 cupfuls of freshly boiling water and put over the fire to boil. After the coffee has boiled for 5 minutes, pour 1/4 cupful of cold water down the spout. Allow it to stand for a few minutes where it will keep hot and then serve. |
| posted by neptunus @ 6:29 PM
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